国际经贸法治瞭望｜史晓丽、郭威：欧盟以绿色转型为名对“新三样”产业实施大规模专向补贴

2024-11-11
小编: 作者：梁异
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导读: 作者｜史晓丽郭威中国政法大学国际法学院欧盟以绿色转型为名对“新三样”产业实施大规模专向补贴前言 2024年10月29日欧委会发布公告，自10月30日起对自中国进口的电动汽车征收

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　　作者｜史晓丽郭威中国政法大学国际法学院

欧盟以绿色转型为名对“新三样”产业实施大规模专向补贴

前言

　　2024年10月29日欧委会发布公告，自10月30日起对自中国进口的电动汽车征收反补贴税。实际上，[1]欧盟及其成员国近年来以支持绿色转型和落后地区发展等名义，通过直接赠款、税收优惠、低息贷款、贷款担保、价格补贴等方式，大力补贴“新三样”产业(锂电池、光伏产品和电动汽车)，以提高全球竞争力和抢占新兴产业制高点。尽管欧盟制定了限制成员国提供国家援助的规则，但也设置了名目繁多的豁免条款，允许各成员国实施具有专向性和扭曲性的补贴。欧盟还以自身名义设立多项支持性基金，直接提供赠款。欧盟双渠道补贴机制(欧盟基金和成员国国家援助)向许多“新三样”项目提供了全额资助或者覆盖项目绝大多数成本的高额资助，补贴力度非常大。以太阳能发电产业为例，欧盟在2022年通过各项基金提供的补贴累计高达250亿欧元。[2]

　　一、欧盟设立多项支持基金为“新三样”产业提供大量补贴

　　欧盟以推动绿色转型、落后地区发展等名义设立了至少十一项支持性基金，为“新三样”产业提供补贴，这些基金包括“复苏和韧性基金”“地平线欧洲”“创新基金”“欧洲区域发展基金”“连接欧洲基金”“公正过渡基金”“凝聚力基金”“投资欧盟基金”“欧洲社会基金”“欧洲农业农村发展基金”以及“现代化基金”。

　　(一)欧盟基金向多个“新三样”项目提供全额补贴或者金额超过项目预算半数的大额补贴

　　在欧盟各项基金中，有五大基金(复苏和韧性基金、地平线欧洲、创新基金、欧洲区域发展基金和连接欧洲基金)经常以赠款和贷款形式为大量“新三样”项目提供全额补贴或者金额超过项目预算一半的大额补贴。

　　“复苏和韧性基金”(RRF)、“地平线欧洲”(Horizon Europe)、“创新基金”(Innovation Fund)向“新三样”产业提供的补贴最多。RRF主要通过提供赠款和优惠贷款对绿色和数字化转型等领域提供补贴。据统计，到2024年4月，RRF已提供879亿欧元用以支持零排放或低排放车辆等可持续交通项目。[3]“地平线欧洲”旨在促进研发和创新，以支持绿色转型。该基金在2021-2027年的总预算为935亿欧元，其中2021-2022年已提供2273.5万欧元补贴。[4]“创新基金”主要是向低碳技术创新项目提供补贴，资金主要来源于欧盟碳排放交易收入。2021-2030年，该基金将提供至少400亿欧元赠款。[5]

　　“欧洲区域发展基金”(ERDF)和“连接欧洲基金”(CEF)也向“新三样”产业提供大量补贴。“欧洲区域发展基金”主要资助落后地区进行产业结构调整和转型，以缩小与欧盟其他地区的发展差距。2021-2027年，该基金将重点资助有助于绿色低碳转型的项目，[6]计划拨款1043亿欧元补贴能源转型和可持续城市交通等项目。[7]“连接欧洲基金”主要支持在交通、能源和数字服务领域发展高性能、可持续和高效互联的跨欧洲网络。[8]2021-2022年，该基金向18个能源项目提供了16.6亿欧元赠款(包括5个电力项目、4个二氧化碳项目、3个天然气项目、1个智能电网项目、5个跨境可再生能源项目)。[9]

　　(二)欧盟基金对电池产业的整体补贴力度最大

　　电池产业是电动汽车的上游，欧盟基金对其提供了大量直接赠款。在“新三样”产业中，电池行业获得欧盟基金补贴以及各成员国国家援助的项目数量最多。例如，“地平线欧洲”在2014-2020年向电池产业的307个研发项目提供了约8.73亿欧元赠款，“创新基金”在2021-2022年向电池产业的8个项目提供了约1.61亿欧元赠款，“欧洲区域发展基金”向14个成员国的459个电池相关项目提供了约3.19亿欧元赠款。[10]

　　在电池研发方面，“地平线欧洲”提供了大量拨款，并且对很多项目提供全额补贴。例如，该基金在2015年5月向法国、西班牙、比利时、卢森堡、瑞士、德国合作的新一代锂电池开发项目拨款约689万欧元(项目预算725万欧元)；[11]2020年1月向法国、意大利、波兰、西班牙、比利时、斯洛文尼亚、德国与乌克兰合作的全固态锂电池研发项目提供约781万欧元的全额资助；[12]2020年2月向法国、意大利、奥地利、瑞士、瑞典、德国与英国合作的电动汽车锂电池研发项目提供1025万欧元的全额资助；[13]2020年5月向法国、意大利、荷兰、西班牙、奥地利、比利时、德国与土耳其合作的硫化物基全固态锂电池(用于电动汽车)研发计划提供789万欧元的全额补贴；[14]2023年1月向法国、意大利、西班牙、奥地利、比利时、葡萄牙、斯洛文尼亚、德国、挪威合作的新一代锂电池研发项目提供799万欧元的全额资助。[15]

　　在电池制造方面，“欧洲区域发展基金”提供了大量拨款。例如，该基金在2018年9月向德国能源与环境化学中心的“未来电池项目”拨款80万欧元用于制造有机物电池(项目预算101万欧元)，[16]2019年10月向德国“汉堡能源转型和清洁空气计划”(项目预算6150万欧元)拨款778万欧元用于将集装箱运输车改造为电池车。[17]

　　在电池回收方面，“创新基金”提供了大量全额资助。例如，该基金在2022年4月向法国ERAMET公司的电动汽车锂电池回收项目提供了6755万欧元的全额补贴。[18]

　　(三)欧盟基金对光伏产业单个项目的补贴金额最大

　　在欧盟，具备自然条件的成员国大力发展光伏产业。虽然欧盟光伏项目在数量上相对较少，但是所需资金规模庞大。欧盟基金为其提供了大量全额补贴以及金额超过项目预算一半的高额补贴，补贴形式以直接赠款为主，兼有优惠贷款等支持方式。例如在2022年，欧盟各项基金向太阳能发电产业提供的补贴总额高达250亿欧元，高于风能发电补贴和生物质能燃料发电补贴。[19]

　　在光伏技术研发方面，“创新基金”和“地平线欧洲”提供了大量全额补贴、高额赠款与优惠贷款。例如“创新基金”在2021年1月向意大利国家电力公司提供了1.17亿欧元赠款，用于开发高性能光伏组件试点生产线。[20]“地平线欧洲”在2018年4月向法国、意大利、西班牙、瑞士、德国合作的公用光伏研发项目拨款940万欧元(项目预算1114万欧元)，[21]2022年10月向荷兰、西班牙、瑞典、瑞士、希腊、德国合作的超薄膜光伏技术和柔性光伏电池开发项目提供293万欧元的全额赠款，[22]2022年12月向法国、意大利、荷兰、葡萄牙、瑞典、瑞士、德国合作的钙钛矿光伏设施研发项目提供511万欧元的全额资助。[23]

　　在光伏设施安装方面，欧盟基金同样提供全额支持或大比例支持。例如，“复苏和韧性基金”为意大利多个光伏设施安装项目提供全额支持，包括2022年7月向农业光伏安装项目提供15亿欧元的全额赠款，[24]2023年7月向光伏电池生产商3Sun公司的生产设施扩建项目提供8950万欧元赠款。[25]

　　(四)欧盟基金对电动汽车产业的资助从研发、生产延伸至消费者补贴

　　欧盟基金对电动汽车产业至少提供了220亿欧元以赠款为主要形式的补贴，其中“复苏和韧性基金”(RRF)、“地平线欧洲”(Horizon Europe)、“欧洲区域发展基金”(ERDF)和“连接欧洲基金”(CEF)提供的补贴全面覆盖电动汽车研发、制造、配套充电设施安装和消费等环节。

　　例如，“复苏和韧性基金”向西班牙的多个电动汽车项目提供巨额补贴。2021年12月该基金向西班牙“电动和联网汽车行业经济复苏和转型战略性计划”(PERTE VEC)拨款15.5亿欧元(项目预算30亿欧元)以支持电动汽车和联网汽车全产业链研发，[26]2023年5月和7月再次向西班牙该项目提供8.37亿欧元[27]和5.287亿欧元赠款。在消费环节，法国从2023年起向电动汽车消费者提供相当于电动汽车含税价格27%的“生态补贴”，“复苏和韧性基金”为其拨款9.85亿欧元。[28]2021年西班牙的“高效和可持续出行项目III”(MOVES III)获得“复苏和韧性基金”提供的1.5亿欧元用于补贴电动汽车消费和充电设施安装。[29]2021年，“复苏和韧性基金”向德国提供55亿欧元补贴以支持私人电动汽车、公共汽车和轨道汽车消费和充电基础设施安装，[30]2023年又向德国个人购置零排放汽车拨款27.64亿欧元。[31]

　　“地平线欧洲”在2015年6月为欧盟部分成员国(法国、意大利、捷克、德国、英国)合作的电动汽车能源系统优化项目提供800万欧元全额资助；[32]2016年10月，意大利、波兰、荷兰等10个欧盟成员国与白俄罗斯、土耳其、以色列、欧委会和欧洲绿色汽车倡议协会共同设立“ERA-NET”基金以促进欧洲电动汽车产业发展，“地平线欧洲”为其提供626万欧元。[33]2019年“地平线欧洲”向法国、奥地利、捷克、德国共同参与的电动汽车动力系统和关键零件制造技术的研发计划“1000km PLUS”拨款540万欧元，[34]2022年7月向法国、意大利、西班牙、德国和土耳其合作的电动汽车电源转换系统改进计划提供599万欧元全额资助，[35]2024年1月向法国、意大利等11个欧盟成员国和挪威、英国合作的电动汽车全流程制造技术改进项目提供1138万欧元全额资助。[36]

　　“欧洲区域发展基金”在2022年11月为意大利、罗马尼亚和西班牙共同部署的电动汽车大功率充电基础设施网络项目拨款2138万欧元，[37]2019年2月向西班牙“高效和可持续的交通激励计划”(MOVES)提供1500万欧元补贴，[38]2020年向西班牙项目预算1亿欧元的MOVES II计划提供部分资金，[39]用于补贴电动汽车消费和充电基础设施安装。[40]

　　二、欧盟成员国通过本国公共资金为“新三样”提供大量国家援助

　　(一)欧盟设置多项国家援助豁免情形以大量补贴“新三样”产业

　　根据《欧盟运行条约》第107条第1款的规定，扭曲或可能扭曲竞争并对成员国之间的贸易造成影响的国家援助构成与欧盟内部市场不相容，各成员国不得提供。

　　但是该条第2款和第3款为该禁令设定了多种例外，只要满足例外条件，即便有扭曲作用，也构成与欧盟内部市场相容或者视为相容，各成员国就可以提供此类国家援助。例如，为“欧洲共同利益重要项目”(IPCEI)提供的国家援助以及为特定经济活动提供的国家援助等，就属于此类可以提供的国家援助。其中“欧洲共同利益重要项目”是指可以极大促进欧盟产业和经济增长、就业、绿色和数字化转型以及提高竞争力的项目。每个IPCEI项目至少应由四个成员国共同制定实施计划并向欧委会通报，经欧委会批准后方可实施。

　　《欧盟运行条约》第108条规定，各成员国应向欧委会通报拟实施的国家援助，在欧委会做出最终审查和批准决定前不得实施。但是，该条约授权欧盟理事会和欧委会规定无需通报即可实施的国家援助类型。为此，欧委会发布了《一般通用豁免条例》和《微量援助条例》。《一般通用豁免条例》规定成员国无需向欧委会通报即可实施区域援助、中小企业援助、环保援助、研发和创新援助、培训援助、宽带基础设施援助、地方基础设施援助、欧洲区域合作项目援助和与“投资欧盟基金”所支持金融产品有关的援助。《微量援助条例》规定成员国在3个财政年度内对每个企业提供的不超过30万欧元的微量援助无需向欧委会通报。

　　欧委会还发布了《临时性危机和过渡框架》，旨在扩充《欧盟运行条约》第107条所述“视为与欧盟内部市场相容”的国家援助范围。经欧委会批准，成员国可以通过赠款、税收优惠、贷款担保、优惠贷款、预付款等形式提供某些国家援助，其中包括与储能和推广可再生能源有关的投资援助和运营援助；与电气化和促进工业生产脱碳有关的援助；为减少电力消耗提供的援助；为加快向净零经济转型向相关战略产业提供的投资援助。

　　(二)欧盟成员国普遍补贴电池产业并辐射众多电池相关企业

　　欧盟成员国为“欧洲共同利益重要项目”(IPCEI)下的两期电池产业研发项目累计提供了超过60亿欧元的补贴，为区域援助计划下的六个项目提供了累计5.72亿欧元的补贴，补贴形式包括直接赠款、税收优惠与贷款担保。[41]

　　例如，2019年12月欧委会批准法国、意大利、波兰等七个欧盟成员国建立第一期电池IPCEI项目，向17家企业提供总额高达约32亿欧元的直接赠款，批准的国家援助金额分别是意大利5.7亿欧元，波兰2.4亿欧元，法国9.6亿欧元，比利时8000万欧元，芬兰3000万欧元，瑞典5000万欧元、德国12.5亿欧元。[42]在2021年1月欧委会批准的第二期电池IPCEI中，法国、意大利等12个参与国共计向42个受补贴企业提供总额约29亿欧元的国家援助，其中波兰、斯洛伐克、克罗地亚和希腊提供的部分国家援助还使用了“欧洲区域发展基金”提供的资金。各成员国在第二期电池IPCEI下提供的国家援助以赠款为主，金额分别是意大利6亿欧元，法国、克罗地亚和斯洛伐克各1亿欧元，波兰2000万欧元，瑞典5000万欧元，奥地利5000万欧元，比利时和希腊各4000万欧元，芬兰1000万欧元，西班牙100万欧元，德国15亿欧元。比利时还以“应偿还预付款”形式向相关研发机构提供了国家援助。[43]

　　法国和德国还向电池产业提供大额专向补贴。例如在法国，截至2023年5月，“法国2030计划”向电池研发项目(PEPR)提供了1900万欧元国家援助，“BATMAT计划”为80个成熟电池项目提供了1500万欧元国家援助，“电池创新解决方案和技术计划”为20个项目提供了7900万欧元国家援助，“材料回收创新解决方案计划”(RRR)提供了3000万欧元国家援助，向关键金属投资基金注入5亿欧元。[44]2024年1月，欧委会批准了德国对Northvolt公司9.02亿欧元的国家援助以支持其建设清洁电池工厂和大规模生产电池，该补贴包括7亿欧元的直接赠款和2.02亿欧元贷款担保。[45]

　　(三)欧盟成员国对光伏产业补贴期限最长并且单项补贴金额较大

　　在欧盟，法国和意大利等成员国为光伏电站建设和光伏发电项目提供长达20年的价格补贴，累计补贴金额至少达到236亿欧元。例如，2017年9月，欧委会批准法国以政府采购和电价补贴形式提供可再生能源发电国家援助，其中包含两项为期20年、总额不超过46亿欧元的光伏发电补贴。[46]2021年7月，欧委会批准法国拟实施的305亿欧元可再生能源发电国家援助，其中光伏产业电价补贴超过116亿欧元。[47]2021年8月，欧委会批准法国拟实施的57亿欧元国家援助，补贴方式是允许建筑物上峰值功率不超过500千瓦的小型光伏装置在20年内适用上网电价。[48]2023年11月，欧委会批准了意大利拟向农业光伏电站建设项目提供17亿欧元的国家援助计划，国家援助方式包括使用欧盟“复苏和韧性基金”提供的11亿欧元投资赠款以及5.6亿欧元并为期20年的双向差价合约或上网电价补贴，价格补贴方式依据受补贴方的装机容量确定。[49]

　　意大利等成员国还为安装光伏装置提供税收优惠。例如，2020年5月，意大利制定“110%超级补贴”政策，为进行房屋节能改造的意大利公民提供相当于改造费用110%的免税额度，免税方式包括所得税抵免、由供应商承担全部费用并获得免税额度、使用免税额度抵扣银行或保险公司提供的贷款。[50]其中，安装住宅光伏系统最高可获得4.8万欧元税收抵免。[51]从2024年起，意大利超级补贴政策的免税比例下调至70%。[52]

　　在欧盟，如果投资项目旨在生产光伏电池以及相关零部件，也可以获得直接赠款。例如，欧委会先后在2024年9月17日、9月27日和10月11日批准波兰12亿欧元、[53]葡萄牙10亿欧元、[54]卢森堡5.2亿欧元的国家援助计划，[55]用于支持战略设备生产方面的投资，包括电池、光伏电池板、风力涡轮机、热泵、电解槽、碳捕获的使用和储存设备以及相关重要零部件和关键原材料的生产，以加快向净零经济转型。[56]2024年10月3日，欧委会批准波兰12亿欧元国家援助计划，允许补贴储电设施投资，以促进向净零经济转型。[57]

　　(四)欧盟成员国普遍利用各项补贴政策刺激电动汽车消费

　　到2023年，欧盟27个成员国均制定了至少一项电动汽车消费补贴政策，补贴形式以税收优惠和赠款为主，仅德国就提供了100亿欧元补贴。[58]

　　在税收优惠方面，法国、西班牙和德国等成员国为电动汽车消费提供登记税、个人所得税、流通税等多种税收优惠。例如法国对纯电和混电汽车减免50%的登记费和100%的车牌注册费。[59]西班牙则在2023年6月对购置电动汽车和充电设备提供15%的个人所得税减免，其中电动汽车的扣税基数不超过2万欧元，充电设备的扣税基数不超过4000欧元。[60]在德国，2012年至2023年至少两次延长电动汽车的机动车免税期限，2016年还根据“政府电动汽车计划”为电动汽车提供为期10年的流通税豁免。[61]

　　赠款是欧盟成员国鼓励电动汽车消费的另一重要手段。例如2020年5月，法国开始实施80亿欧元的“汽车行业振兴计划”，国家援助范围包括电动汽车消费、生产和充电装置部署。[62]其中电动汽车消费领域的国家援助形式是向购车消费者发放生态补贴或者向购买电动或混电汽车以代替柴油或汽油车的消费者发放换车补贴。[63]在地方层面，2019年以来，巴黎都市圈的131个城市均为购置电动汽车提供了不同额度的国家援助。[64]在德国，2016年5月制定了“政府电动汽车计划”，为购买纯电和混合动力汽车的消费者提供12亿欧元“环境奖金”，以及为扩大充电基础设施提供3亿欧元补贴。“环境奖金”由联邦政府和汽车行业共同出资，其中半数发放给生产商以便其降低汽车售价，另一半以赠款形式发放给消费者。[65]2020-2021年，德国再次为购置电动汽车和氢电混合能源汽车提供22亿欧元“环境奖金”，并投入12亿欧元国家援助用于将公共汽车更新为电动汽车。[66]

　　充足和便利的充电设施是促进电动汽车消费的重要环节，因此法国、德国等欧盟成员国为充电设施安装提供了大量直接赠款和税收优惠。例如法国在2016年通过政府制定的“Advenir计划”至少提供了3.2亿欧元赠款用于安装充电设施。[67]法国还实施增值税优惠和税收抵免政策，其中对家用充电设施的增值税为5.5%，对在楼龄超过2年的建筑物上安装充电装置的增值税为10%，对在楼龄不满2年的建筑物上安装充电装置的增值税为20%，2021-2023年购买和安装充电装置还能享受最高300欧元的专项税收抵免。[68]在德国，2022年7月建立了联邦气候与转型基金(“KTF”)，用于推动2023-2026年的能源转型和气候保护。[69]2022年10月，德国交通部制定了涵盖68项具体措施的充电基础设施补贴计划，由该基金提供全额支持，资金规模为6.3亿欧元。2023年6月，德国交通部拨款9亿欧元用于完善该补贴计划，其中5亿欧元用于支持私人充电站建设，4亿欧元用于商用充电站建设。[70]

　　三、欧盟“新三样”产业巨额补贴取得成效并进一步加深市场扭曲

　　在推动绿色转型和落后地区发展等名义下，欧盟多个基金和各成员国国内资金为实施补贴提供了双重资金保障，赠款、税收减免、价格补贴、贷款优惠等补贴形式互为补充，共同服务于欧盟在全球“新三样”领域抢占发展先机、塑造领导力的目标。

　　花样繁多的补贴使欧盟“新三样”产业实现了快速协同发展。在电池产业，2014-2020年欧盟预算至少提供了17亿欧元的拨款和贷款担保，2019年以来各成员国仅以支持“欧洲共同利益重要项目”和区域发展的名义就提供了总额累计超过65.7亿欧元的国家援助。[71]在双重补贴的支持下，欧盟已拥有10家超级电池工厂和20个在建工厂，电池产能可以满足三分之二的欧盟市场需求。[72]2022-2023年，欧盟锂电池出口额在全球出口总额的占比从28.2%上升至30.3%。[73]在光伏领域，欧盟基金提供的补贴和各成员国的国家援助至少达到86亿欧元和236亿欧元。这些巨额补贴使欧盟在2021-2023年的光伏装机容量年增长率均超过40%，[74]2022-2023年欧盟太阳能电池板出口额增长19%，出口量增长37%。[75]在电动汽车领域，欧盟基金提供的补贴和各成员国提供的国家援助至少达到220亿欧元和108亿欧元。在补贴政策推动下，欧盟到2023年已拥有超过63万个公共充电点，2023年直流汽车充电装置增长率达到84%。[76]2022年欧盟电动汽车出口金额(223亿欧元)同比上涨100%，与2019年相比增长400%。[77]

　　总之，欧盟“新三样”补贴名目繁多，补贴对象具有专向性，补贴力度大，许多项目获得了全额补贴或者金额超过项目预算一半的补贴。这些补贴已见成效，对欧盟“新三样”产业的制造与出口起到了重要促进作用。随着欧盟“新三样”产业补贴规模和范围的不断扩大，市场扭曲作用将进一步加深。

　　(本文研究助理：符馨予，崔芸菲，黄旖璇，张倩茹)

　　参考文献

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　　[46] European Commission, State aid: Commission endorses four support schemes to deploy more than 7.5 gigawatts capacity in renewable energy in France, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_17_3581; European Commission, Aide d’État SA.46552 (2017/NN) — France Soutien par appels d'offres au développement des installations de production d'électricité à partir de l'énergie solaire Aide d’État SA.47753 (2017/NN) — France Soutien par appels d'offres au développement des installations de production d'électricité à partir de l'énergie solaire, implantées sur bâtiments Aide d’État SA.48066 (2017/NN) — France Appel d'offres trisannuel pour l'éolien Terrestre Aide d’État SA.48238 (2017/N) — France Soutien par appels d'offres au développement des installations de production d'électricité à partir de l'énergie solaire photovoltaïque ou éolienne Terrestre, https://microeconomicevaluation.jrc.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2020-12/SA50272_DEC.pdf.

　　[47] European Commission, State aid: Commission approves ？0.5 billion French scheme to support production of electricity from renewable energy sources, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_3922.

　　[48] European Commission, State aid: Commission approves ？.7 billion French scheme to support production of electricity from small solar installations on buildings, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_4424；European Commission, Aide d’État SA.61902 (2021/N) – France Soutien tarifaire aux installations sur bâtiment utilisant l'énergie solaire 2021-2026 https://ec.europa.eu/competition/state_aid/cases1/202143/SA_61902_B0339E7C-0000-CD6D-A658-E8078EE59425_141_1.pdf.

　　[49] European Commission, Commission approves ？.7 billion Italian State aid scheme under the Recovery and Resilience Facility to support agrivoltaic installations, https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_5451; European Commission, Subject: State Aid SA.107161 (2023/N) – Italy – RRF - Support for the promotion of agrivoltaic installations, https://ec.europa.eu/competition/state_aid/cases1/202351/SA_107161_80CE688C-0100-C9DF-B4C3-FBF1C906FE1B_54_1.pdf.

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　　[53] European Commission, Commission approves ？.2 billion Polish State aid scheme to support investments in strategic sectors to foster the transition to a net-zero economy. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_4141.

　　[54] European Commission, Commission approves ？ billion Portuguese State aid scheme to support investments in strategic sectors necessary to foster the transition to a net-zero economy. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_4822.

　　[55] European Commission, Commission approves ？20 million Luxembourgish State aid schemes to foster the transition to a net-zero economy. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_5025.

　　[56] European Commission, State Aid SA.109581 (2024/N) – Poland TCTF: Aid for investment projects in sectors strategic for the transition towards a net-zero economy.

　　[57] European Commission, Commission approves ？.2 billion Polish State aid scheme to support investments in electricity storage facilities to foster the transition to a net-zero economy. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_4985.

　　[58] BMWK, Umweltbonus endet mit Ablauf des 17. Dezember 2023, https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/DE/Pressemitteilungen/2023/12/20231216-umweltbonus-endet-mit-ablauf-des-17-dezember-2023.html.

　　[59] European Commission, European Alternative Fuels Observatory- France, https://alternative-fuels-observatory.ec.europa.eu/transport-mode/road/france/incentives-legislations.

　　[60] Agencia Tributaria, Deduction for the acquisition of "plug-in" electric vehicles, https://sede.agenciatributaria.gob.es/Sede/en_gb/vehiculos-embarcaciones/deduccion-irpf-adquisicion-vehiculos-electricos/deduccion-adquisicion-vehiculos-electricos-enchufables/porcentaje-deduccion-que-periodo-impositivo-aplica.html.

　　[61]Analysis of the recovery and resilience plan of Germany Accompanying the document Proposal for a COUNCIL IMPLEMENTING DECISION amending Implementing Decision (EU) (ST 10158/21 and ST 10158/21 ADD 1) on the approval of the assessment of the recovery and resilience plan for Germany, https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/1aee8883-f34d-4526-ba13-98d591254eb5_en?filename=SWD_2023_371_1_EN_autre_document_travail_service_part1_v4.pdf.

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　　[63] Élysée, Plus verte et plus compétitive : notre plan de soutien à la filière automobile, https://www.elysee.fr/emmanuel-macron/2020/05/26/plus-verte-et-plus-competitive-notre-plan-de-soutien-a-la-filiere-automobile.

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　　[65] BMWK, Regulatory environment and incentives for using electric vehicles and developing a charging infrastructure, https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/EN/Artikel/Industry/regulatory-environment-and-incentives-for-using-electric-vehicles.html.

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　　[70] GTAI, Germany to Invest Additional EUR 900 Million in EV Charging Infrastructure, https://www.gtai.de/en/invest/industries/mobility/automotive-industry/germany-to-invest-additional-eur-900-million-in-ev-charging-infrastructure-1019410.

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EU’s Specified and Massive Subsidies for “New Trio” Industry Under Green Transition

　　Author | Shi Xiaoli, Guo Wei, China University of Political Science and Law

　　Preface

　　On October 29, 2024, the European Commission issued a notice imposing countervailing duties on electric vehicles imported from China starting from October 30. In fact, Official European Union (EU) statistics[1] reveal that in recent years, the EU and its member states have heavily subsidized the “new trio” industries—lithium batteries, photovoltaic products, and electric vehicles—over recent years through grants, tax breaks, low-interest loans, loan guarantees, and price subsidies. These measures, justified by green transition and regional development goals, aim to enhance global competitiveness and secure a lead in emerging industries. Although the EU has established rules to limit state aid from member countries, it has also introduced numerous exemption clauses that allow for specified and distortionary subsidies by member states. Additionally, the EU has set up several supportive funds to provide direct grants under its own name. Through its dual-channel subsidy mechanism (EU funds and member state aid)， the EU provides either full or high-cost coverage for many “new trio” projects, resulting in substantial funding support. For example, in 2022, the EU provided a total of EUR 25 billion in subsidies to the solar power industry through various funds.[2]

　　I. The EU offers extensive subsidies to the “new trio” industries via multiple funds

　　Under the banner of promoting green transition and supporting the development of disadvantaged regions, the EU has established at least 11 support funds to subsidize the “new trio” industries. These funds include the Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF)， Horizon Europe, Innovation Fund, Just Transition Fund (JTF)， European Regional Development Fund (ERDF)， Cohesion Fund, InvestEU Fund, European Social Fund (ESF)， Connecting Europe Facility (CEF)， European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD)， and the Modernisation Fund (MF).

　　A. EU funds provide full or majority subsidies for multiple “new trio” projects

　　Among the various EU funds, five major funds—the RRF, Horizon Europe, Innovation Fund, ERDF, and CEF—often provide full subsidies or substantial grants, covering up to half or more of the project costs for numerous “new trio” initiatives through grants and loans.

　　The RRF, Horizon Europe and Innovation Fund have provided the largest subsidies to the “new trio” sectors. The RRF primarily provides subsidies for areas such as green and digital transitions through grants and preferential loans. As of April 2024, the RRF has provided EUR 87.9 billion to support sustainable transportation projects, including zero- or low-emission vehicles.[3] The Horizon Europe aims at promoting research and innovation to support the green transition. The fund has a total budget of EUR 93.5 billion for the 2021-2027 period, with subsidies amounting to EUR 22.735 million already provided from 2021 to 2022.[4] The Innovation Fund primarily provides subsidies to low-carbon technology innovation projects, with funding mainly sourced from EU carbon emissions trading revenue. From 2021 to 2030, this fund will grant at least EUR 40 billion.[5]

　　The ERDF and the CEF also provide full or large grant subsidies to the “new trio” sectors. The ERDF primarily finances structural adjustments and transformations in disadvantaged regions to reduce the development gap with other EU areas. From 2021 to 2027, it focuses on promoting a green and low-emission transition,[6] allocating EUR 104.3 billion to subsidize projects such as energy transition and sustainable urban mobility.[7] The CEF mainly supports the development of high-performance, sustainable, and interconnected trans-European networks across transport, energy, and digital service sectors.[8] From 2021 to 2022, the fund awarded EUR 1.66 billion in grants to 18 energy projects, including 5 electricity projects, 4 carbon dioxide projects, 3 natural gas projects, 1 smart grid project, and 5 cross-border renewable energy projects.[9]

　　B. The EU funds provide most subsidies to the battery industry

　　As an upstream sector of electric vehicles, the battery industry has received substantial direct grants from EU funds. Within the “new trio” industries, battery projects receive the largest share of subsidies from EU funds and state aid, with many fully subsidized or receiving over half of their budget. Examples include the Horizon Europe granting approximately EUR 873 million to 307 battery R&D projects from 2014 to 2020, the Innovation Fund awarding EUR 161 million to 8 battery projects from 2021 to 2022, and the ERDF allocating EUR 319 million to 459 battery-related projects across 14 member states.[10]

　　In the field of battery R&D, the Horizon Europe has provided substantial funding, with many projects receiving full subsidies. In May 2015, it allocated EUR 6.89 million to a project developing a new generation of lithium-ion batteries, collaboratively undertaken by France, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, and Germany (with a project budget of EUR 7.25 million).[11] In January 2020, it provided a full subsidy of EUR 7.81 million to an all-solid-state battery R&D project involving France, Italy, Poland, Spain, Belgium, Slovenia, Germany, and Ukraine.[12] In February 2020, it allocated EUR 10.25 million to electric vehicle lithium battery R&D projects jointly conducted by France, Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Sweden, Germany, and the UK.[13] In May 2020, it granted EUR 7.89 million to a sulfide-based all-solid-state lithium battery R&D project for electric vehicles, with participation from France, Italy, Spain, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, and Turkey.[14] In January 2023, it allocated a full subsidy of EUR 7.99 million to a next-generation lithium battery R&D project, collaboratively carried out by France, Italy, Spain, Austria, Belgium, Portugal, Slovenia, Germany, and Norway.[15]

　　In the field of battery manufacturing, the ERDF has provided substantial funding. In September 2018, the fund allocated EUR 800,000 to The Batteries for the Future project at the Center for Energy and Environmental Chemistry (CEEC) in Jena, Germany, to support the production of organic batteries (with a project budget of EUR 1.01 million).[16] In October 2019, it provided EUR 7.78 million to Germany’s “Energy Transition and Cleaner Air in Hamburg: HHLA’s container transporters run on smart batteries instead of diesel” project (with a project budget of EUR 61.5 million)， aimed at converting container transport vehicles into battery-powered trucks.[17]

　　In the field of battery recycling, the Innovation Fund has provided substantial full subsidies. In April 2022, the fund financed EUR 67.55 million to the French company ERAMET for its electric vehicle lithium battery recycling project.[18]

　　C. EU funds provide the largest subsidies for individual projects in the photovoltaic industry

　　In the EU, member states with favorable natural conditions are actively developing the photovoltaic industry. Although the number of photovoltaic subsidies is relatively low, the required funding is substantial. The EU funds provide generous subsidies that often cover all or more than half of the programs’ budget, mainly through direct grants, along with preferential loans, price subsidies, and other support mechanisms. For instance, in 2022, EU funds provided a total of EUR 25 billion in subsidies to the solar power industry, exceeding the subsidies allocated to wind power and biomass energy generation.[19]

　　The R&D of photovoltaic technology has received substantial full subsidies, large grants, and preferential loans from the Innovation Fund and Horizon Europe. In January 2021, the Innovation Fund granted EUR 117 million to Enel in Italy to develop a pilot production line for high-performance photovoltaic modules.[20] In April 2018, the Horizon Europe allocated EUR 9.4 million to a public photovoltaic R&D project jointly undertaken by France, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, and Germany (with a project budget of EUR 11.14 million).[21] In October 2022, it allocated EUR 2.93 million in full funding to a project on ultrathin-film photovoltaic technology and flexible solar cells, cooperatively developed by the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Greece, and Germany.[22] In December 2022, it provided a full grant of EUR 5.11 million to a perovskite photovoltaics R&D project participated by France, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and Germany.[23]

　　The installation of photovoltaic facility is also heavily subsidized by EU funds. For example, the RRF fully funded several photovoltaic installation projects in Italy, including a full subsidy of EUR 1.5 billion granted in July 2022 for an agrivoltaic installation project[24] and an EUR 89.5 million grant in July 2023 to support the expansion of 3Sun’s photovoltaic cell production facilities.[25]

　　D. EU funds extend support for EV industry from R&D and production to consumer subsidies

　　The EU has allocated at least EUR 22 billion to support the electric vehicle sector, mainly through grants. Subsidies from the RRF, Horizon Europe, ERDF and CEF effectively cover all stages of the electric vehicle sector, including R&D, manufacturing, charging infrastructure installation, and consumer support.

　　The RRF has allocated substantial subsidies to several electric vehicle projects in Spain. In December 2021, it provided EUR 1.55 billion to Spain’s “Measures of encouragement of transformative project the value chain of VEC” (PERTE VEC) program, with a total budget of EUR 3 billion, to support R&D across the entire value chain.[26] In May and July 2023, additional grants of EUR 837 million[27] and EUR 528.7 million were given to the same project. In the consumer sector, France began offering an “ecological bonus” of 27% of the VAT-inclusive price of electric vehicles from 2023, with EUR 985 million allocated from the RRF.[28] In 2021, Spain’s “Incentives Program for Efficient and Sustainable Mobility III” (MOVES III; in Spanish, Programa de Incentivos a la Movilidad Eficiente y Sostenible) program received EUR 150 million from the RRF to support electric vehicle purchases and charging infrastructure installation.[29] In 2021, the RRF also allocated EUR 5.5 billion to Germany for private electric vehicle, bus, and train consumption, and charging infrastructure.[30] In 2023, it provided EUR 2.764 billion to support the purchase of zero-emission vehicles by individuals in Germany.[31]

　　The Horizon Europe program provided a full subsidy of EUR 8 million in June 2015 for an electric vehicle energy system optimization project undertaken by several EU member states, including France, Italy, the Czech Republic, Germany, and the UK.[32] In October 2016, 10 EU member states, including Italy, Poland, and the Netherlands, partnered with Belarus, Turkey, Israel, the European Commission, and the European Green Vehicles Initiative Association (EGVIA) to establish the ERA-NET fund, aimed at promoting the development of the European electric vehicle industry. The Horizon Europe provided EUR 6.26 million for this initiative.[33] In 2019, the Horizon Europe allocated EUR 5.4 million to the “1000km PLUS” program, a joint initiative by France, Austria, the Czech Republic, and Germany, focused on developing electric vehicle powertrains and key components manufacturing technologies.[34] In July 2022, the fund fully supported the power electronics conversion innovation program, with a budget of EUR 5.99 million, jointly undertaken by France, Italy, Spain, Germany, and Turkey.[35] In January 2024, the fund provided a full subsidy of EUR 11.38 million to an electric vehicle full-process manufacturing technology improvement project, jointly undertaken by France, Italy, and 8 other EU member states, along with Norway and the UK.[36]

　　In November 2022, the ERDF allocated EUR 21.38 million to a high-power electric vehicle charging infrastructure network project jointly deployed by Italy, Romania, and Spain.[37] In February 2019, it provided a EUR 15 million subsidy to Spain’s MOVES program,[38] and in 2020, it contributed partial funding to the MOVES II program, which had a budget of EUR 100 million,[39] to support electric vehicle consumption and the installation of charging infrastructure.[40]

　　II. EU Member States provide significant state aid for the “new trio” through State resources

　　A. Member States apply state aid exemption rules to significantly subsidize the “new trio” industries

　　Article 107(1) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) states that any aid which distorts or threatens to distort competition and affects trade between Member States is incompatible with the internal market and is thus prohibited.

　　However, Article 107(2) and (3) provide various exceptions to this prohibition. When these conditions are met, state aid is considered compatible, or deemed compatible, with the internal market, allowing member states to offer such aid. Examples include aid for “Important Projects of Common European Interest” (IPCEI) and aid for specific economic activities. The IPCEIs refer to projects that significantly advance EU industry, economic growth, employment, green and digital transitions, and competitiveness. Each IPCEI must be jointly developed by at least 4 member states and notified to the European Commission for approval before implementation.

　　Article 108 of the TFEU mandates that member states notify the European Commission of planned state aid, which may not be implemented until the Commission completes its review and grants approval. However, the Treaty authorizes the EU Council and the Commission to specify types of aid that do not require notification. To this end, the Commission issued the General Block Exemption Regulation (GBER) and the De Minimis Regulation. Under the GBER, member states may provide regional aid, SME aid, environmental aid, R&D and innovation aid, training aid, broadband infrastructure aid, local infrastructure aid, support for European territorial cooperation projects, and aid related to financial products backed by the InvestEU Fund without notifying the Commission. The De Minimis Regulation exempts from notification any aid of up to EUR 300,000 per enterprise over 3 fiscal years.

　　Additionally, the Commission introduced the Temporary Crisis and Transition Framework to expand the scope of aid deemed “compatible with the internal market” under Article 107 of the TFEU. With Commission approval, member states may provide certain aid through grants, tax incentives, loan guarantees, concessional loans, advance payments, and more. This includes investment and operational aid for energy storage and renewable energy promotion, aid for electrification and industrial decarbonization, aid for reducing electricity consumption, and investment aid for strategic industries to accelerate the transition to a net-zero economy.

　　B. Member States widely subsidize the battery sector benefiting a large number of battery-related enterprises

　　EU member states have allocated over EUR 6 billion in subsidies for two phases of battery R&D projects under the IPCEI. They have also provided a total of EUR 572 million to six regional aid projects through direct grants, tax incentives, and loan guarantees.[41]

　　For example, In June 2019, 7 EU Member States, including France, Italy, and Poland, jointly notified the European Commission of the first battery IPCEI, providing EUR 3.2 billion in direct grants to 17 companies: Italy EUR 570 million, Poland EUR 240 million, France EUR 960 million, Belgium EUR 80 million, Finland EUR 30 million, Sweden EUR 50 million, and Germany EUR 1.25 billion.[42] In the second phase of the battery IPCEI approved by the European Commission in January 2021, France, Italy, and 10 other participating countries allocated a total of EUR 2.9 billion in state aid to 42 subsidized companies. Some of the state aid provided by Poland, Slovakia, Croatia, and Greece was supported by funding from the ERDF. The state aid from EU member states was primarily in the form of grants, with the following amounts allocated: Germany, EUR 1.5 billion; Italy, EUR 600 million; France, Croatia, and Slovakia, EUR 100 million each; Poland, EUR 20 million; Sweden and Austria, EUR 50 million each; Belgium and Greece, EUR 40 million each; Finland, EUR 10 million; and Spain, EUR 1 million. Additionally, Belgium provided state aid to relevant research institutions in the form of “repayable advances.”[43]

　　France and Germany also provided substantial specified subsidies to the battery industry. In France, as of May 2023, the “France 2030” plan provided EUR 19 million in state aid for the “Priority Research Programmes and Equipments” (PEPR) project. The “BATMAT” plan allocated EUR 15 million in state aid for 80 mature battery projects, while the “Battery Innovation Solutions and Technologies” program (in French, Solutions et Technologies pour l’Innovation des Batteries) offered EUR 79 million in state aid for 20 projects. Additionally, the “Materials Recycling Innovation Solutions” (RRR; in French, Solutions innovantes pour l’amélioration de la recyclabilité, du recyclage et de la réincorporation des matériaux) program provided EUR 30 million in state aid and injected EUR 500 million into a critical metals investment fund.[44] In January 2024, the European Commission approved EUR 902 million in state aid from Germany to Northvolt to support the construction of a clean battery factory and large-scale battery production. This subsidy includes EUR700 million in direct grants and EUR 202 million in loan guarantees.[45]

　　C. Member States’ subsidies for the photovoltaic industry have the longest duration and the largest individual amount among the “new trio” industries

　　In the EU, countries like France and Italy offer up to 20 years of price subsidies for photovoltaic power plant construction and solar energy projects, with total subsidies reaching at least EUR 23.6 billion. In September 2017, the Commission approved France’s State aid for renewable electricity production, which includes two 20-year subsidies for photovoltaic power generation amounting to EUR 4.6 billion, provided through government procurement and electricity price subsidies.[46] In July 2021, the Commission further approved a EUR 30.5 billion State aid scheme for renewable electricity production in France, allocating over EUR 11.6 billion to the photovoltaic sector.[47] In August 2021, another EUR 5.7 billion in State aid was approved in France for small photovoltaic installations on buildings, allowing those with a peak power of up to 500 kilowatts to benefit from a 20 years feed-in tariff.[48] In November 2023, the Commission approved a EUR 1.7 billion Italian State aid scheme for agrivoltaic installations, with its subsidy recipients determined through a bidding process that will allocate EUR 1.1 billion in investment grants from the RRF and EUR 560 million in two-way contracts for difference (CfD) or feed-in tariffs for 20 years. The specific forms of the subsidies will depend on the installed capacity of the recipient’s project.[49]

　　Italy and other EU member states also offer tax incentives for installing photovoltaic systems. In May 2020, Italy introduced the “110% superbonus” tax deduction for energy efficiency and seismic renovation of residential buildings, offering a tax exemption amounting to 110% of the renovation costs. There are three available tax exemption methods: (i) an income tax credit; (ii) suppliers covering the entire cost and receiving a tax exemption; and (iii) transferring the tax exemption amount to offset loans from banks or insurance companies.[50] Under this policy, the installation of residential photovoltaic systems can receive a tax credit of up to EUR 48,000.[51] Starting in 2024, Italy’s super subsidy policy will lower the tax-exempt rate to 70%.[52]

　　In the EU, investment projects aimed at producing photovoltaic cells and related components are also eligible for direct grants. For example, the European Commission approved state aid packages of EUR 1.2 billion for Poland,[53] EUR 1 billion for Portugal,[54] and EUR 520 million for Luxembourg[55] on September 17, September 27, and October 11, 2024, respectively. These funds support investments in strategic equipment production, including batteries, photovoltaic panels, wind turbines, heat pumps, electrolyzers, carbon capture, usage and storage equipment, and related essential components and critical raw materials to accelerate the transition to a net-zero economy.[56] Additionally, on October 3, 2024, the Commission again approved a EUR 1.2 billion Polish aid package to subsidize investments in energy storage facilities, further promoting the shift to a net-zero economy. [57]

　　D. Member States generally use subsidies to stimulate consumption in the electric vehicle sector

　　By 2023, all 27 EU member states had implemented at least one electric vehicle consumption subsidy policy, primarily in the form of tax incentives and grants. Germany alone allocated EUR 10 billion in subsidies for electric vehicle adoption.[58]

　　In terms of tax incentives, member states such as France, Spain, and Germany offer various tax benefits for electric vehicle consumption, including registration tax, personal income tax, and circulation tax. For example, France provides a 50% reduction on registration fees and a 100% exemption on license plate registration fees for fully electric and hybrid vehicles.[59] In June 2023, Spain introduced a 15% personal income tax reduction for the purchase of electric vehicles and charging equipment. The tax deduction applies up to EUR 20,000 for electric vehicles and EUR 4,000 for charging equipment.[60] Germany has extended its exemption from motor vehicle tax for electric vehicles multiple times between 2012 and 2023, including a 10-year circulation tax exemption introduced in 2016.[61]

　　Grants are another important means of promoting electric vehicle consumption. In May 2020, France launched an EUR 8 billion “Automotive Industry Revitalization Plan” (in French, Plan de relance pour l’industrie automobile)， which encompasses state aid for electric vehicle consumption, production, and the deployment of charging infrastructure.[62] In the area of electric vehicle consumption, the state aid takes the form of ecological subsidies for car buyers or trade-in bonuses for consumers purchasing electric or hybrid vehicles to replace diesel or gasoline cars.[63] At the local level, since 2019, 131 cities in the Paris metropolitan area have provided varying amounts of state aid to support the purchase of electric vehicles.[64] In May 2016, Germany introduced the “Government Programme for Electric Mobility” plan, providing EUR 1.2 billion in environmental bonus for the purchase of fully electric cars and plug-in hybrid vehicles, and EUR 300 million for the expansion of charging infrastructure. The environmental bonus is equally funded by the federal government and the automotive industry, with half of the subsidies given to manufacturers to reduce the car price and the other half to consumers as grants.[65] Germany provided an additional EUR 2.2 billion in environmental bonus for the purchase of electric cars and plug-in hybrid vehicles between 2020 and 2021, and invested EUR 1.2 billion in electric buses.[66]

　　Sufficient and convenient charging infrastructure is a crucial factor in promoting electric vehicle consumption. Therefore, EU member states such as France and Germany provide substantial direct grants and tax incentives for the installation of charging facilities. In 2016, France provided at least EUR 320 million in grants through the “Advenir” program to subsidize these installations.[67] France also implemented VAT incentives and tax credit policies. The VAT for home charging facilities is set at 5.5%， while the VAT for installing charging devices in buildings over two years old is 10%， and for buildings under two years old, it is 20%. Additionally, from 2021 to 2023, buyers of charging devices can benefit from a special tax credit of up to EUR 300 for purchasing and installing these facilities.[68] While in German, in July 2022, the German federal government established the Climate and Transformation Fund (KTF)， using the national budget to support energy transition and climate protection from 2023 to 2026.[69] In October 2022, Germany’s Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport approved a charging infrastructure subsidy plan, fully supported by the fund, with a budget of EUR 630 million covering 68 specific measures. In June 2023, the ministry allocated EUR 900 million to improve the subsidy plan, with EUR 500 million dedicated to private charging stations and EUR 400 million to commercial ones.[70]

　　III. EU’s substantial subsidies for the “new trio” show significant impact but risk distorting global market

　　Under the banner of green transition, support for underdeveloped regions, and the development of specific industries, EU funds and Member States’ State aid provide dual financial backing for the implementation of subsidies. Various incentives, including grants, tax exemptions, price subsidies, and preferential loans, work together to advance the EU’s true objective: seizing development opportunities and asserting leadership in the global competition within the “new trio” sectors.

　　A variety of subsidies has enabled rapid development of the EU’s “new trio” industries. The battery industry received at least EUR 1.7 billion in grants and loan guarantees from the EU budget between 2014 and 2020. Since 2019, EU member states have provided over EUR 6.57 billion in state aid through IPCEI and regional aid programs.[71] With dual subsidy support, the EU now hosts 10 gigafactories and 20 under-construction plants for battery production, meeting two-thirds of the EU’s market demand for batteries.[72] From 2022 to 2023, the EU’s share of global lithium battery exports grew from 28.2% to 30.3%.[73] In the photovoltaic sector, EU funds and state aid totaled at least EUR 8.6 billion and EUR 23.6 billion, respectively. These subsidies drove over 40% annual growth in photovoltaic installations from 2021 to 2023,[74] while EU solar panel exports rose 19% in value and 37% in quantity from 2022 to 2023.[75] In the electric vehicle sector, EU funds and state aid reached at least EUR 22 billion and EUR 10.8 billion, respectively. By 2023, the EU surpassed 630,000 public charging points, with an 84% increase in DC chargers.[76] EU electric vehicle exports also surged to EUR 22.3 billion in 2022, marking a 100% increase from 2021 and a 400% rise from 2019.[77]

　　In conclusion, the EU “new trio” subsidies, which take various forms, are both specified and substantial. Numerous initiatives have benefited from EU funds or State aids, with subsidies accounting for over half of their total budgets. These subsidies have achieved initial success in promoting the development of the EU’s “new trio” industries. However, as these subsidies grow in scale and scope, along with the EU’s increasing export competitiveness, they are likely to distort the foreign and even the global markets.

　　参考文献

　　[1]Primary data sources include official statistical reports from the European Commission, subsidy notifications submitted by the EU to the WTO, and publications by EU member state governments or public agencies.